This is the first demonstration that PDE5 blockade exerts an indirect, immune-mediated, antineoplastic effect through inhibition of MDSC-mediated immunosuppressive mechanisms. These findings could establish a new role for PDE5 inhibition as a viable and effective immunological adjunct in the treatment of various malignancies, thereby adding to the growing list of therapeutic applications of these agents. In this paper we show that PDE5 inhibition can significantly overcome the immunosuppressive mechanisms present in a tumor-bearing host to generate immune responses that are similar to (if not greater than) those observed in a non– tumor-bearing, vaccine-primed host (Fig. 2). However, although a CTL response can be elicited, PDE5 blockade is incapable of complete tumor eradication (Fig. S1). Several hypotheses may account for these findings. For example, chronic sildenafil blockade may up-regulate PDE5 expression, making it difficult to achieve complete and long-term pharmacologic inhibition (39). Alternatively, the sildenafil-mediated immune response against the self tumor-associated antigen can predominantly involve low affinity CD8+ T cells incapable of complete tumor cell killing. Finally, the tumor-specific immune response may ultimately result in immune editing of the tumor that escapes immune recognition (Fig. S1, C and D). Scientists Grow New Penile Tissue in the Lab Stuart N. Seidman, M.D., Steven P. Roose, M.D., Matthew A. Menza, M.D., Ridwan Shabsigh, M.D., and Raymond C. Rosen, Ph.D. For Free Natural Health Newsletters, Signup Today by Visiting www.NaturalHealthNewsletters.com PDE5 blockade not only increases intratumoral CD8+ infiltration and activation but also enhances their tumoricidal activity (Fig. 2). The ability to favorably alter the intratumoral microenvironment, thereby permitting tumor-specific T cells to directly interact with their targets, is critical for maximal antitumor immunity. Effective immunotherapy requires tumor-specific CTLs to infiltrate the tumor and kill their target in situ. Although no clinical advantage was derived by the presence of tumor-specific CTLs in the peripheral blood in melanoma patients (40), their frequency in the tumor correlated with a favorable prognosis (41). These clinical observations seem to be confirmed in our model where sildenafil treatment (a) increased the CD8+ T cell tumor infiltration (Fig. 4 B) and (b) increased the percentage of activated T cells (Fig. 4, C and D). Moreover, the number of tumor-infiltrating T cells directly correlated with a measurable antitumor effect (Fig. 3). 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